General introduction to Chinese arts and crafts

Chinese arts and crafts take a large portion of varied Chinese cultures. They are the crystallization of human being's wisdom and assume the characteristics of long history and rich subjects. In ancient times, people have already attached great importance to the development of their own unique styles. The arts and crafts passed down from generation to generation by the artists are the embodiment of the people's yearning for beauty. In fact, most of them are closely related to Chinese traditional festivals, religions, ornaments and others, thus reflecting Chinese traditional cultures and daily activities vividly and are still prevailing among the people. Among them, the most representative ones includes the paintings, paper-cuts, wax printings, embroidery, calligraphy, bronze vessels, stone carvings, jade, pottery and porcelain, folk toys, music, dance and operas, etc. Anyway, they are not only the rich collection of Chinese cultures, but also the great treasures of the world.

Chinese Paper-cut

Paper cutting is a traditional art in China which has been making its way along the route of the long history of paper. The kind of art went after the invention of paper in Han Dynasty, once became one of the main forms of arts, and was popular to the people of the time; even in royal families ladies were also judged by the ability at paper cut.

Chinese paper cutting art derived from paper joss although it paper joss is often printed. With some color of Taoist superstition, paper cuts and paper joss originally have the same meanings: Feudal China was backward in many ways. Most laboring people toiled year after year without enough to eat and wear. The farmers longed for a bumper harvest, the handicraftsmen hoped to have a brisk market, the fishermen prayed for a large catch, the silkworm raisers wished for a cocoon boom. Everyone wanted a healthy and prosperous family free from being bullied and oppressed by local corrupt officials. These hopes and desires were vividly expressed in unique folk art forms with paper. The paper was cut or printed with the images of deities, gods and immortals created by the ancient people, which they worshiped and prayed to for blessings and happiness.

Most of the papers cut artists are women. The themes of their works usually include everything in people's daily life from dumb things to the surroundings. Familiarity makes them understand the real spirit of the art. The main tool for paper cut is scissors. Once they are owned by a master of paper cut, they will become so supernatural that the paper cuts beyond imagination flow out of his/her hands in the chattering of a common pair of scissors. Another tool for paper cutting is engraving knives which are necessary to enhance a sharpened effect or to make a delicate job.

No doubt those arts come from life and serve life. Paper cuts are very popular in the countryside in the north of China because of humid climate. The delicate works of paper cutting are not easy to keep well or long in damp or moist southern weather in China. Thus paper joss is more frequently put up in south China. The bright colors of red, green or light blue paper cuts provide a strong foil to set off a merry atmosphere. So they are often found in wedding ceremonies or festivals in China. And people like to decorate their windows and doors using colorful paper cuts.

Chinese Painting

Painted animals, fish, deer, and frogs on colored pottery excavated with indication of the Neolithic Period are the primary form of Chinese traditional painting. After thousand of years' development, Chinese traditional painting is highly regarded throughout the world for its theory, expression, and techniques.

Looking at Chinese paintings for the first time, you are easy to find it very different from western oil paintings which are devoid of brushwork. Chinese painting is the art of brush and ink; the basic tools are almost same with those of calligraphy; which influenced painting in both technique and theory. The brush line, which varies in thickness and tone, is the important feature of a Chinese painting. Shading and color plays only minor symbolic and decorative role. Ink was recognized as being able to provide all the qualities of color.

According to the means of expression, Chinese painting can be divided into two categories: the Xieyi school and the Gongbi school. The Xieyi school is marked by exaggerated forms and freehand brush work. The Gongbi school is characterized by close attention to detail and fine brush work.

Traditional Chinese painting is a combination in the same picture of the arts of poetry, calligraphy, painting, and seal engraving. In ancient times most artists were poets and calligraphers. Su Dongpo (1037-1101) is an example. To the Chinese, "painting in poetry and poetry in painting" has been one of the criteria for excellent works of art. Inscriptions and seal impressions help to explain the painter's ideas and sentiments and also add decorative beauty to the painting. Ancient artists liked to paint pines, bamboo, and plum blossoms. When inscriptions like "Exemplary conduct and nobility of character" were made, those plants were meant to embody the qualities of people who were upright and were ready to help each other under hard conditions. For Chinese graphic art, poetry, calligraphy, painting, and seal engraving are necessary parts, which supplement and enrich one another.

Although you will see artists in China painting or sketching in front of their subject, traditionally the painter works from memory and is not so much interested in imitating the outward appearance of his subject, but of capturing its life-like qualities, to imbue his painting with the energy that permeates all nature.

From the Han Dynasty until the end of the Tang Dynasty, the human figure occupied the dominant position in Chinese paintings, as it did in pre-modern European art. Figure painting flourished against a Confucian background, illustrating moralistic themes. By the 9th century, the interests of artists, stimulated by Taoist attitude and ideas, began to shift from figures to landscapes again. Then the practice of seeking out places of natural beauty and communing with nature become the most important aspect of Chinese painting.

The function of the landscape painting was to serve as a substitute for nature, allowing the viewer to wander in imagination within the landscape. The painting is meant to surround the viewer, and there is no 'viewing point' as such as three is in western painting. In the 11th century a new attitude, put to painting by a group of scholar-painter led by Su Dongpo was that painting could go beyond mere representation; it could also serve as a means of expression and communication in much the same way as calligraphy. Painting became accepted as one of the activities of a cultured man. Especial for retired men, they did not paint for income, but for pleasure. They were also collectors and connoisseurs of art, the arbiters of taste. Their ideas on art were voiced in voluminous writings and in inscriptions on paintings.

Moralistic qualities appreciated in a virtuous man (in the Confucian frame of things) became the very qualities appreciated in paintings. One of the most important of these qualities was the 'concealment of brilliance' under an unassuming exterior; and deliberate display of technical skill was considered vulgar. Creativity and individuality were highly valued – but within the framework of tradition. The artist created his own style of painting by transforming the styles of the ancient masters. And the scholar-artist saw himself as part of the great continuity of painting tradition. This art-historical approach to painting became a conscious pursuit in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties.

Since the turn of the century, China has experienced great political, economic, and cultural changes, and the art of painting is no exception. While traditional Chinese painting still occupies an important place in the life of modern Chinese, many painters now desire to express their experience of new times. By combining new modes of expression with traditional Chinese painting techniques, they are opening up a vast, new world of artistic expression.

Chinese Calligraphy

The art of calligraphy in China has historically served several roles, with a balance required between the practical transmission of textual information and the creation of aesthetic impact with brush and ink. Calligraphy is traditionally been regarded in China as the highest form of visual art. A fine piece of calligraphy was often valued more highly by a collector of art than a good painting. Children were trained at a very early age to write beautifully and good calligraphy was a social asset. A scholar, for example, could not pass his examination to become an official if was a poor calligrapher. A person's character was judged by his handwriting, and elegant handwriting was believed to reveal a person of great refinement.

The basic tools of calligraphy are paper, ink, ink-stone (with ink stick) and brush, which are commonly referred to as the 'four treasures of scholar's study'. A brushstroke must be infused with the creative or vital energy which, according to the Taoist, permeates and animates all phenomena of the universe: the mountain, rivers, rocks, trees, insects, animals. Expressive images are drawn from nature to describe the different types of brush stroke; for example, 'rolling waves', 'leap dragon', 'a startled snake slithering off into the grass', 'a dewdrop about to fall' or a 'playing butterfly'. A beautiful piece of calligraphy would therefore conjure up the majestic movements of a landscape. The quality of the brushstrokes are 'bone', 'flesh', 'muscle', and 'blood'; blood, for example, refers to the quality of the ink and varied ink tones created by the degree of moisture of the brush.

Calligraphy itself is regarded as a form self-cultivation as well as self-expression. It is believed that calligraphy should be able to express and communicate the most ineffable of thoughts and feelings which cannot be conveyed by words. It is often said that looking at calligraphy 'one understands the writer fully, as if meeting him fact to face'.

All over China, examples of calligraphy can be fond in temples, adorning the walls of caves, on the sides of mountains, monuments and anything else with a flat or roughly flat surface. There are six basic or typical styles which are divided by writing manners.
1. Standard or regular script (Kaishu in Chinese)
2. Running hand or semi-cursive script (Xingshu in Chinese)
3. Cursive script (Caoshu in Chinese)
4. Clerical official script
5. Seal character
6. (Wei) Stone tablet inscription

Chinese Embroidery

Embroidery is a very long established art form in China.  It was never classified as a solely female activity and men and women have both been involved in embroidery.  The items embroidered are quite diverse and include robes, theatrical costumes, purses, shoes, spectacle cases, banners, alter cloths and many other pieces.  Some of the pieces were so finely stitched that the pieces took 5-6 people several years to complete.  Embroidery was also used as a means of decorating silk clothing and for silk flags and banners as a means of denoting rank or station.  The finest pieces of work were very expensive.  Gradually, embroidery developed, as a pastime for wealthy ladies and many members of the court were renowned for their intricate work.

According to the Chinese there are two main divisions of embroidery, "chih wen" and "tuan chen".  "Chih wen" uses the long and short stitch, while "tuan chen" involves the seed stitch used in Beijing which is also known as the French knot.  The stitches most commonly used by the Chinese include 1) satin stitch – which is further classified into long and short 2) Beijing stitch or French knot 3) Stem stitch; 4) Couching; 5) Chain stitch; and 6) Split stitch.  All of these stitches are known in the west.  Many westerners find Chinese embroidery a little over done.  The Chinese satin stitch when done to perfection is exquisite in its fine detail.  The use of gold thread for the French knot, for which the Chinese have a special gift, is characteristic of their work.  Sometimes even such light material as gauze and paper were embroidered to demonstrate the fineness of the work.

It is difficult to be precise as to when embroidery first was practiced in China but based on archeological excavations of tombs it at least dates back to the early Han dynasty which based itself near Lake Baikal in the early second century B.C.  Many Tang embroideries continue to be preserved both in China and in Japan.  One of the most famous representations of the embroiders' artistry is the piece that came from the Thousand Buddhas at Tun Huang and that dates from the tenth Century.  

There are also many fine pieces of embroidery from the Sung dynasty.  We know from historical records that the Sung Emperor Hui Tsung (1101-1126) established an embroidery bureau called the "Wen Hsiu Yuan".  It also is well known that many of the finest pieces were copied in the Ming and Ching period and it is therefore difficult to definitely attribute many of these pieces.

Chinese Literature records the names of many famous embroidery artists.  Among these are Kuan Fu-jen, the wife of the painter Chao Meng-fu and the ladies of the Ku family in Shanghai such as Ku Shou-ch'ien who worked their artistry in Ming times.  The painters Tung ch'i-ch'ang and Wen Cheng-ming and more recently Sh'en Chou who died in 1910 are all considered great embroiders.

Embroidery is still practiced in many sections of China. Suzhou is well known for the quality of its work. Additionally other areas have a reputation for embroidery but few can match the precision, art and charm of the work produced in China prior to the Modern period.

Chinese Acrobatics

Chinese Acrobatics is one of the oldest performing arts, dating back of between 475-221BC. Chinese acrobatics can be called a national art. It is one of the art forms most popular among the Chinese people. In the past twenty some years, some acrobats in China have taken this folk art to a new height. The children, aged 6 to 15, have started their career here and will entertain the whole nation and the world over when they are mature in skills.

Despite the popularity of Chinese acrobatics in old days, it was never performed in theatres because it was looked down upon by the feudal class. However, in 1949 the people's government began developing national arts, and acrobatics gained a new life. All regions of China now have their own acrobatic troupes, and the veteran performers are now able to display their skills. Chinese acrobatics makes use of costumes, props and lighting too, which represent the optimism, resourcefulness, and courage of the Chinese people.

Chinese Bronze Vessels

The evolution of the Chinese art of bronze casting spans thousands of years. No other ancient civilization can rival the quantity, decorative variety, and sheer technical advancements of objects created during the dynastic periods of the 17th to 1st centuries B.C. Archeological discoveries have revealed large quantities of ceremonial items, chariots and weaponry that are extremely elegant in form and finely decorated with symbols of political and religious power. Perhaps the most mysterious and elaborate findings are the vast number and array of ancient bronze ritual vessels. Embodied in magnificent shapes bearing exquisite motifs and inscriptions, these artifacts carry profound historical importance - and offer us a glimpse into the secrets and glory of China's ancient past.

During the Bronze Age of China (beginning at about the 21st century BC), civilization was made up of a slave society ruled by an all-powerful king and his nobles. It was believed that the king received his power from divine ancestors whose spirits could influence the course of important events. Lavish ritual feasts were often held at the ancestral shrine to honor and appease these spirits, and ornate bronze vessels were made to hold food and wine offerings. Ownership of such sacred vessels was restricted to the king, the royal family, and the aristocracy - creating the allusion that bronze was related to power and divinity.

Ancient rulers were also deeply concerned with ensuring their immortality. In addition to the practice of ancestral worship, bronze vessels were a vital part of the funeral or burial ritual. Convinced that they could carry material possessions to the next life, members of royalty were buried with much of their personal wealth, including ornate containers filled with food and wine. During the Shang Dynasty (16th-11th centuries BC), it was also customary to bury servants, bodyguards, horses, chariots, and charioteers with the deceased to ensure the safety and comfort of their passage. This ritual practice has provided us with the main source of significant archeological findings, as the burial custom acted to preserve the magnificent contents of ancient royal tombs over long periods of time.

Bronze ritual objects of these early dynastic periods were crafted in highly unusual yet specific shapes according to their function. Vessels for containing wine, water and cooked foods, varied widely in forms such as square, round, tripod, spouted and even animalistic shapes. The stress was always on the formal qualities of design - balance and symmetry - which communicated solemnity and ceremony. Elaborate decorations typically covered the surface, indicating how valued and important these vessels were. The traditional "taotie" or "beast of gluttony" image commonly appears as a theme throughout many centuries. This symbol, depicted as a pair of ferocious mythological creatures joined face-to-face, becomes more highly stylized and abstract in later periods - but the fixed, penetrating gaze of the bulging round eyes remains a constant feature. Scholars today still do not understand the entire meaning of this symbol, which adds to the mystery of the religious and ritual spirit of these ancient ritual vessels.

During the Zhou Dynasty, about 1027-221 BC, China gradually transformed from a slave society to a feudal class system and the symbolic and religious significance of ritual vessels slowly diminished. These bronze objects became symbols of personal wealth and prestige-- as household decorations, gifts of state given to foreign rulers, and commemorative pieces for special events or battle victories. Most of these latter items carried long inscriptions which have become valuable records of early Chinese history. During the Han dynasty (206 BC - 220 AD), bronze was often replaced with terra cotta figurines and ceramic wares for burial rituals.

Today, the beauty of traditional Chinese bronze art lives on in many museums, galleries and antiquity collections. Modern replicas are still crafted in the ancient style, and are valued as culturally significant decorations for homes and businesses. From the artifacts once created to honor royal ancestors and comfort the deceased, we can learn about and enjoy the fascinating ways of life of ancient China.