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History of China
The list of Dynasties Prehistoric time (1.7 million years – 21stcentury B. C) ANCIENT EMPIRE Xia Dynasty (21th . – 16th. century B. C) Shang Dynasty (16th century - 11th century B. C) Zhou Dynasty (11th century B. C– 221 century B. C) Qin Dynasty (221 B. C- 206 B. C) Han Dynasty (206 B. C – 220 B. C) Western Han (206 B. C - 24 A. D) Eastern Han (25 A. D - 220 A. D) Three Kingdoms (220 A. D – 280 A. D) Jin Dynasty (265 A. D – 420 A. D) Western Jin Dynasty (265 A. D-- 316 A. D) Eastern Jin Dynasty (317 A. D – 420 A. D) Northern and Southern Dynasties (386 A. D – 589 A. D) MEDIEVAL EMPIRE Sui Dynasty (581 A. D - 618 A. D) Tang Dynasty (618 A. D --- 907 A. D) Five Dynasties (907 A. D – 960 A. D) Late Liang (907 A. D --- 923 A. D) Late Tang (923 A. D --- 936 A. D) Late Jin (936 A. D --- 946 A. D) Late Han (947 A. D--- 951 A. D) Late Zhou (951 A. D--- 960 A. D) Song Dynasty (960 A. D --- 1279 ) Partition of China 1127 Northern Song Dynastie (960 --- 1127) Southern Song Dynastie (1127 --- 1279) Liao Dynasty (916 --- 1125) Jin Dynasty (1115 --- 1234) MODERN EMPIRE Yuan Dynasty (1271 --- 1368) Ming Dynasty (1368 --- 1644) Qing Dynasty (1644 --- 1911) Prehistoric Time (1.7 million years – 21st century B. C..) The prehistoric time in this sense reaches back to ancient societies beginning with the first links to modern mankind, the Yanmou man and spans the enormous gap to the beginning of slavery based societies in the 21st century B. C. In the long process of human evolution hard labour has always been the most important factor. As work demanded certain techniques, ancient humans learned to invent adequate tools for different tasks, to survive in their daily struggle. This period has been defined by archaeologists as the Paleolithic age. The partially broken stone tools and different cultural objects found document the very existence and life of this Beijing people. Later, in the Neolithic age effective grindstone tools manufactured in different shapes and sizes were people enabled to leverage these technological achievement for the successful exploitation of the environment. The Yangshao and Banpo cultures are excellent examples of tribal civilisation where not only stone tools but also artful coloured clay wares and objects had been created. 4,000 years ago, along the Yellow river guided Huangdi, the leader of a tribal alliance, his people, to meet with yet another tribal alliance under the leadership of Yandi. Both alliances eventually united to found the original tribe of all Chinese people. Hence, it’s fair to claim, that we, the Chinese people are truly the descendants of Yan Di and von Huang Di. Yao is credited as one of the most prominent leaders of the early Chinese, voted into leadership several times. His successors were Schun and Yu. Yu became renowned because of his river projects, extremely challenging in that time, considered the technology available. Under his leadership the society experienced a perpetual progress.
Yu was followed by his son Qi, who was voted into power by his people. But now the abdication system was substituted for the inherence system. The Xia Dynasty was the first in the Chinese slave history. At this time the rulers started to secure their power with the help of the army. They exercised total control over the population by the means of criminal laws. Culture wise old, talented sages issued the earliest moon calendars, to improve the quality and quantities of crops in agriculture but also for other aspects of everyday life. The last king of the this dynasty, Jie, created with his rather despotic method of authority, resistance from all walks of society and was eventually overthrown and the second dynasty, the Shang Dynasty began under the leadership of king Tang. Shang Dynasty King Tang was the founder of the Shang Dynasty and from his time on the inherence system was introduced to China. The king was always followed on the throne by his first son. Within the domain of the king existed various princedoms, mostly ruled by members of the royal families. Now, China entered a relatively quite and harmonic stage and achieved an unequaled prosperity, given the social and economic conditions at this time. The capital was displaced several times, until King Pan Geng settled finally in Yin (today’s province of Henan) where fertile land was abundant to support the economic and cultural development. The bronze manufacturing was flourishing, handicraft and trade emerged in great strides. Artful carvings on bones (oracle bones) or on tortoise shells represent the beginning of modern writing and serve us as reliable early records. Some music instruments excavated near Yin, suggest, that music in this era had reached already a remarkable standard. Even eclipses of the sun- and moon could be calculated ahead of time. Most of the dynasties perished because the last king was frequently decadent, corrupt and/or cruel. The same demise happened to the Shang dynasty. The final king, Zhou, was considered unworthy to exercise his regency, was dismissed and the Zhou Dynasty took over. Zhou Dynasty (11th century B. C – 221 B. C) We can separate the Zhou dynasty in two periods: Western Zhou dynasty (11th century B. C – 771 B. C) and Eastern Zhou dynasty (770 B. C – 221 B. C), whereas the latter can be subdivided again into the Spring and Autumn (770 B. C – 476 B. C) and the period of the The Warren Empires (476 B. C – 221 B. C), respectively. The Western Zhou Dynasty was united under the control of the king and with the cooperation of some princes. The administration passed comprehensive laws and implemented new powerful methods. The slaves had to work for their masters and a stabile social system evolved. But then chaos struck, and another change of power took place, once again. Out of the broken Eastern Zhou Dynasty arose many kingdoms, each one struggling to gain control over anybody else. During the Iron Age new technologies became available, what triggered multitudes of new ideas and thoughts and the first schools for teaching those ideas came into play. In all kingdoms appeared reformers and even though the old tradition of slavery was still anchored in society, civilization and culture took further strides forward now, even amidst the turmoil of “The Warring Empires”.
The Qin Empire replaced the six earlier kingdoms which were barely capable of acting politically at all and integrated them within the first unified state. Due to this strategy the first feudal empire came into existence in China and this empire was characterized by the new system of feudal tenure. Qin Shi Huang, the first Emperor, centralized the bureaucratic system, to avoid that local feudal lords might eventual gain to much power or influence. He promoted science and unified the script (writing) which was essential for a good communication between people from different regions. He also sent thousands of workers to forced labor to the world famous Great Wall. However, his regency has been overshadowed by massive political and social conflicts because of the huge, extended construction sites, like Terracotta Army, Great Wall, imperial palaces, all done by forced labor or slavery like conditions and his decisions and decrees based upon advices from his chancellor, to destroy or even burn scripts and books. He assumed, that intrigues and subversive actions against him could be undermined by such measures. Han Dynasty (206 B. C – 220 A. D) In the final years of the Qin Dynasty saw a war for power and influence between two very capable armies. This war is historically documented as the Chu-Han War. 106 B. C. captured Liu Bang with his army victory against Emperor Qin, and conquered thereafter the whole country. This historical event marked the Historically seen was the era of the Han an important period, not only to the fact that governmental affairs were centralized but because of rapid economic growth, construction of a modern systems of roads all over China, endorsement of science and arts, the introduction of Confucianism as official state religion, the invention of the seismograph and the successful integration of different ethnical groups.
Emperor Wu or Liu Che has been the 7th ruler of the Western Han Dynasty (206 B.C – 24 A.D). He was admired for his great talents. He was inaugurated at the age of 16, whereas his Grandmother and her followers held on to power, for some time to come. After Wu was in power he started to promote and press his own political agenda. First and foremost he weakened the power and influence of local princes in such a way, that they had to split their real assets with their sons by law. These measures strengthened the central government to large degree. Whenever justice officials had to be appointed, he asked local officials to recommend intelligent persons, which were eventually promoted to the “right place”. For better control of the general public did he regulate the prices for consumer goods, what raised the state income, but hampered the economy and the general trade. For the intellectual and religious sector he accepted the proposition of Dong Zhongshu to oppress every other teaching besides Confucianism to improve charity and law abidance. He defeated three times with his strong, formidable army the rebellious groups from Xiongnu and secured with this victories peace along the borders. He promoted also the trade with foreigners and remote regions. The world famous “Silk-road” was extended under this sage emperor.
Period of the Three Kingdoms (220 A.D – 280A.D) This period was the extension of the war times after the Eastern Han Dynasty. As the name implies, the power was shared among three Wei, the strongest empire, occupied the largest part of northern China, Shu ruled the Southwest and Wu the lowlands around the Yangtze. In disregarding wartime did every empire delegate their most qualified ministers in rural areas to better the living conditions for the people, to accelerate agricultural development and to figure out new refined military strategies. During this time demonstrated brilliant personalities like Zhuge Liang and Cao Cao their respective abilities and knowledge in military affairs as well as in literature. Especially Guan Yu, the brave general, has admirers still today. After the death of Zhuge Liang the Shu Empire fell slowly but surely apart, followed by the Wu Empire. Finally, this three-way constellation was substituted by the Western Jin Dynasty – originally known as the Wei Empire. Jin Dynasty (265 A.D – 420 A.D) The Jin Dynasty was initialized by a former minister of the Wei Empire. We have to distinguish between two different periods: The Western Jin Dynasty with only 52 years in power has been a short lived dynasty in Chinese history. Nonetheless, represents this era a short phase of unity amidst an otherwise long lasting separation between Han and Sui. The capital of the Eastern Jin Dynasty was today’s Nanjing (formerly known as Jiankang). The territory of the Eastern Jin Dynasty merely defined in the middle and the lower course of the Yangtzsekiang. During the time of the Eastern Jin Dynasty were at the middle and lower course of the Yellow River, 16 short lived, each other fighting states, coexistent. Their rulers were mainly descendants of nomadic nations form Northern- or Western China. In Chinese history they are referred to as the Sixteen Kingdoms. Even with an isolated location in South China (which was considered borderland of the Chinese empire at this time), lasted the Eastern Jin Dynasty for altogether 104 years, with 11 emperors. Towards the end this dynasty was rocked by series of upheavals and inner turbulences. This instability was seen as an opportunity by a member of a powerful family, on which the emperor relied upon, to force the emperor to abdicate and to terminate the Jin Dynasty. Northern- and Southern Dynasties (420 A. D– 589 A. D) The Northern Dynasty lasted from 386 – 420 and the Southern Dynasty from 420 A.D – 589 A. D. During the Southern Dynasty succeeded a series of particular empires, one another: the Song, Qi, Liang and Chen. In the north was the Southern Dynasty confronted by Northern Wei Dynasty, which was founded by the nomadic Tuoba. The northern border of the Qi Dynasty took the course approximately 100 km south of the Huanghe. This period represents yet another key moment for the interaction and mutual understanding of the Chinese among each other. By the time the Northern Wei united northern China, Emperor Wendi started his reforms to consolidate ethics, which played an active role in the compatible yet volatile existence of the different ethnical nations. After the demise of the Northern Empire those people migrated with the knowledge of new technologies to the south. So the south started to benefit from the great inflow of workforce in the economy and in agriculture. Sui Dynasty (581 A. D – 618 A.D) Even though this dynasty lasted only for 37 years, the historical influence was of great importance, because it disbursed the foundation of the following Tang Dynasty (618A.D – 907A.D). During the Sui grew the population rapidly. The dynasty started numerous reform projects which reflected great achievements in a short period of time but depleted the country by high taxations and the leverage of a huge manpower for all public works in such a way, that the dynasty collapsed ahead of time. To name a few of such projects:
The second and last emperor of the Sui Dynasty, the infamous Yangdi, was feared because of his despotism, which damaged the dynasty’s good reputation severely. He focused in his later years only on his personal enjoyment. Even the Great-Emperor-Channel was ordered to be built, so he could enjoy his vacation trips to the south in ease and with convenience. On the other hand was the channel a perfect waterway to ship goods from the north to the south or vice versa. He was toppled in 618 A. D. because he accumulated a huge debt. Tang Dynasty (618 A. D – 907 A. D) The Tang Dynasty is considered in all aspects of the ruling elite’s achievements as “Magnificent”, in terms of politics, economy, culture, religion, diplomacy, education, etc., what was at this time and stage of civilization rather unusual. The capital of the Tang Dynasty was Chang’an, today’s Xi’an. A great and sage emperor has been the second ruler of the Tang Dynasty, Li Shimin (626 A.D – 649 A. D). He posted 626 – 630 as Emperor “Taizong” a decisive victory over the Eastern Turks, what opened the possibility for the Tang Dynasty to extend and spread China’s influence and opening of China to the outside world as well (comp.: i.e.: Xuanzang). Many foreign traders and warriors spilled into the empire as a consequence, what eventually transformed the town cultures at this time. As a result of this influx, Chinese broke new grounds – i. e. the Chinese aristocrats played Polo, a game originated in Iran. That was only possible due to the controlled and widespread horse ownerships in the horse breeding-grounds around Gansu. The administration in Tang – China was partitioned as such:
Penal laws were simplified and alleviated, the school system improved. The codex of law in this Tang era, the Tanglue-shuyi, is completely bequeathed. It was very extensive (more than 500 paragraphs in 12 chapters) and is captivating with consistent logic. One weighs the severity as well as the character of the felony in the context of the social rank of the victim. During the Tang regency came even a woman to power, she was Empress Wu Zetian (684A.D – 705A.D), a formidable and intelligent ruler. The local administrative power was limited, and state politics were strictly limited to central administrative affairs. This era marks the time where different religious schools spread all over the empire, i.e. the Manichaeism, but neither religious school could never really challenge the primacy of Buddhism and Taoism. Literature, especially poetry flourished. Also all other areas of art boomed, like sculptures, all kinds of stone carving and glazed clay wares, especially the three-colored ceramic. An outstanding example is the grottos of the thousand Buddha, a rare artistic treasure. Under the rule of Li Longji, imperial name “Xuanzong”, 888 – 904, reached the dynasty the pinnacle of quite existence – the “Blossoming of Kaiyan”. However, during his final years ceded the powerful influence of the Jiedushi (some kind of official title) slowly. The upraise of An and Shi, initiated by the Jiedushi was the lynchpin of the demise. Under the frequent insurgencies of the agricultural workers, unrests and tumults with many deaths behind suffered the general public. Addendum: Emperor Taizong Empress Wu Zetian Emperor Taizong of the Tang Dynasty (599A.D – 649A.D) Emperor Taizong, a. k. a. Li Shimin was the second emperor of the Tang Dynasty. In 618A.D supported he and his two brothers their father in conquering Chang’an (Xi’an) successfully and established the Tang Dynasty, with their father as the first emperor. Thereafter he proofed his strategic, military talent in various battles he eventually won. This was the base of his own regency to come. By the he came to power he demonstrated his leniency, sagacity and magnanimity. He promoted talented people and began to lead his empire to prosperity. “The water can carry a boat but also capsize a boat”, which translates in political terms, that people can support or overthrow a ruler, pending whether the politic is reasonable, beneficial or not, a motto he strictly believed in. He led the society during his 23 years of regency in a pacifistic and blossoming period – prosperity of Zhenguan. He enforced exclusively the approved systems, promoted the harmonic communication and exchanges with ethnical groups and foreigners, supported artistic creations in literature, carvings, calligraphy, paintings etc., since he was very talented himself. A striking virtue of emperor Taizong was in his ability of self-reflection. He began in his later years to expand his army power to lead some conquests to different nations and built continuously imperial palaces. All this absorbed huge amounts of money and manpower. By the time he realized the failure of such drainage of resources he advised his son to abdicate to luxury.
In the earlier Chinese history was only one Empress. This was Empress Wu Zetian. Whoever is not familiar with her curriculum vitae tends to judge her as stone-hearted and cruel. But after examination and evaluation of her personal history some admiration will arise. Her husband, emperor Gaozong suffered under a very weak health and left more and more of the ruling affairs to her. She killed two of her four intelligent sons in a row, obtained continuously more power and took the law in her hands. The general public meanwhile lived in peace and prosperity. By the time emperor Gaozong has been prescript to bed rest, she banked on the advice of good consultants and rose up to become finally the ruler, the first “Holy Empress”. Battling resistance of some feudal rulers, she successfully sent out military troops to oppress the uprising elements. Nobody challenged her for the throne, for a long time to come. By the time she became old and sick, she was forced to hand over the ruling to her son. Five Dynasties and 10 Empires (907A.D – 979A.D) In the final days of the Tang Dynasty gained the military powers of the regional rulers quickly power. After the demise of the Tang Dynasty arose in Northern China five dynasties, one after another, which are named: the Late Liang, Late Tang, Late Jin, Late Han and Late Zhou. They lasted all together only 53 years. At the same time evolved nine empires in South China and another one up North. In retrospective one recognizes lots of chaos, triggered by despotic and decadent rulers and cruel governmental officials. But this was also the time which led to the coming Song Dynasty, since the last king tried to unify the north, even though to no avail. South China continued to refine the techniques of spinning, of tea production and the baking of porcelain. Trade developed in south China and let to an economic boom. Hangzhou and Chengdubecame important commercial centers. Song Dynasty (960A.D – 1279) The Song dynasty was founded in the course of an upraise of Zhao Kuangyin and was overthrown by the Yuang Dynasty (1271 – 1368). Compared with the Tang Dynasty lasted the Song era longer but is evaluated by historians by far inferior as compared to the Tang. The Northern Song Dynasty (960A.D – 1127) fought wars with the Lao-, Xia- and Jin Dynasties. The Southern Song Dynasty was weaker and un-ambitious to conquer. The wars aggravated the conflicts between different social strata and than Wang Anshi introduced a reform in which he played an important role. In this time printing with mobile letters was invented, one of four great inventions from China, which influenced the whole world profoundly. Ci, a popular form of poetry, even still today evolved in this era. Foreign trade and shipbuilding developed better than in all other dynasties before. The Southern Song’s capital was the today’s Hangzhouwhich was later conquered by the Mongols in the year 1276A.D, made possible by the weakness of the last Song emperor. Liao Dynasty (916A.D – 1125) The Liao Dynasty evolved out of the ethnic group of the Khitan (Qidan) in northern China. These group gained already political momentum, hence influence and power during the regency of empress Wu Zetian an in the Tang dynasty (618A.D – 907A.D). In 916A.D abolished Chief Yelu Abaoji the voting right inaugurated himself as king of the Kingdom of Khitan (Qidan). He was succeeded on the throne by his son who expanded his realm, added the lesser quality land alongside the Great Wall and his tributaries intermingled, creating a “mixture” of Han and Khitan. Mutual exchange of knowledge and technology accelerated the progress in agriculture, especially the still dominant cattle breeding, throughout the kingdom. On the same timeline developed technologies in metal melting, silk spinning, clay ware manufacturing among others. The trade with southerly regions as well as Asian countries like Korea, Japan, Persia etc. grew immense. The military conflicts during the Liao Dynasty concerned first and foremost the Northern Song Dynasty (960A.D – 1127), whose (Liao’s) soldiers had beaten the Song army several times until finally Liao was able to negotiate a rentable peace agreement with the Song rulers. Only after the war the Liao Dynasty was toppled yet by another dynasty who existed, the Jin Dynasty (1115 – 1234). Jin Dynasty (1115 – 1234) The Jin Dynasty grew out of a ethnical group of the Jurchs (Nuzhen). The Jurchs suffered such great oppression during the regency of the last emperor of the Liao Dynasty, that at one point in time they could not bear it anymore and rose up to fight against continuous repressions. Almost one year later the complete configuration changed and the former powerful Liao was defeated and the Jurchs were free to found an own empire – the Jin Dynasty. In the following years the Jin army gained remarkable strength, what let to attack the southern rulers as well as the northern Song – and they were successful indeed. In the beginning of the Jin Dynasty lived the majority of the Jurch still in the state of slavery, even though they dominated land earlier controlled by the Liao and Song, areas where a high degree of feudalism was still prevalent, but eventually overall conditions for life became better, the administrative changed and the economy of north China improved. Analyzing the cultural artifacts of this time it is obvious how clay ware- and jade industries surged and created prosperity. This dynasty is finally ruined by excessive taxation, questionable agricultural interferences in land ownership, all of which eventually led to economic downspins, depression and increased resistance of the middle class.
The dynasty was 1271 proclaimed by Kublai Khan, the grandchild of Genghis Khan. Translated is the meaning of Yuan “the very beginning”. The Yuan replaced the Song Dynasty after the capitulation of Hangzhou in 1276 and the defeat of the last Song followers 1279. Since 1264 the capital was Bejing, at this time called Tatu or Khan-balyq. Shan-tu (the “Xanadu” of poetry stands as metaphor for pomp and wealth) was the summer residence and the Karakorum shan (black hierarchy) gave the political elite legitimation. In terms of domestic politics and in foreign affairs, the Yuan Dynasty was only formally acclaimed. What followed were repeated confrontations with the remaining Mongols, still living in the steppes, the last ones around 1360. Besides that, pursued the Mongolic rulers in the west, the Golden Hordes and the Ilchane in 1260 and 1295 respectively, their own political visions and took on the Islam as their religion. Around 1310 formed that thitherto unstable Tschagatai-Khanat anew, to the effect, that now one has to differentiate between four empires, independent from each other, in the 14th century. The Mongolian garrisons were concentrated around the capital, while in the rich and fertile areas along the Yangtze (Yangzhou, Nanjing, Hangzhou) were Chinese troops under the command of Mongolian generals tried to maintain peace. The Chinese soldiers were substituted every two years and relocated to distant provinces. Their commanders were detached to avoid rebellions, as well. The rulers of the Yuan Dynasty held on to a certain degree of feudalism intentionally and were obliged to consign the Han with positions of authority since the Han were highly experienced in modern administration, productive manufacturing processes and technologies. This was surely applauded by the Han. To enforce economic development anew, great attention was given to agriculture, irrigation, architecture, mathematics and craftwork, also silk production, porcelain manufacturing and production of ammunition. The booming capital of Dadu, today’s Bejing, had become one of the most famous economic centers in the world, with a thriving foreign trade. Because of excessive exploitation by Mongolian authorities social resistance arose again. People desired a more peaceful and rewarding life. Ming Dynasty (1368 – 1644) The Ming Dynasty enhanced progress in almost any field and withdraw most of the rights and laws back, limiting political affairs more or less to centralized tasks, so that centric feudalism peaked in the complete history of China. In the early days of the Ming Dynasty progressed agriculture and handcrafts but foremost the production of textiles and chinaware. In the middle and late periods arrived a new kind of economy and trade in China: – the new born capitalism. The cities of Bejing and Nanjing as well as other coastal cities were relatively prosperous and stood in the forefront in foreign trade. In the later days of the Ming Dynasty tyrannized the influential and powerful eunuchs the people. Frequent confrontations between common citizens and the upper class escalated, because the degree of exploitation became for the public intolerable. A reforms, designed to better the situation were introduced, but to no avail – too little, too late. At the end the peasants revolted against the monarch, and the last emperor hang himself on a tree. Qing Dynasty (1644 – 1911) The Qing Dynasty arose from another ethnical group, the Manchu (former Mongolian Jurchs). In the beginning of their regency they were challenged, hence suppress resistance of the Han majority. Two famous emperors, Kangxi and Qianlong, strove to better the living conditions of the people. Attacks out of Mongolia were defended. After the consolidation of the nomadic groups in and around Xinhang economic growth accelerated rapidly and the future of the society looked more promising. In the time of the first Opium War in 1840, when the dream of autarchy took shape, the arrogant rulers started to regret this snootily attitude. They were terrorized by foreigners and made even concessions to those, with complete disregard of the opposition by the Chinese tributaries. By the time the newly raised capitalists gained momentum, the government fell due to the revolution, led by Su Yat Sen in 1911. 1912 dismissed the Republik of China the government of the Qing Dynasty, however chaos and turmoil in China prevailed for some time to come. Modern History In the beginning of the 19th century the Qing Dynasty degenerated noticeably. Great Britain exported during this time great quantities of opium to China, while the Qing government tried to ban the trade. To secure the trade with opium started Great Britain a war of aggression against China. The Qing government was held down to the knees and had to sign the “Treaty of Nanjing”, which brought disgrace and shame upon the Chinese nation. After the Opium War Great Britain, the U. S. A., France, Russia, Japan and other imperialistic nations, forced the Qing government to sign various unequal treaties. China started to drift slowly but surely in a direction where it became somewhat a part half colonial part half feudal state. In 1911 led Dr. Sun Yat-sen the revolution, in which course he overthrew the more than 200 years lasting Qing Dynasty and hence finished the dominance of the feudalistic system that weigh heavily on China for more than 2.000 years. The Republic of China was proclaimed – a great occurrence in the history of modern China. The New Democratic Revolution (1919 – 1949) The 4th of May movement in the year 1919 is seen as the source of new ideas for various important incidents to come. Different ideas spilled into China, especially the political theories of Marxism and Leninism. In the year 1921 met 12 representatives of the various communist groups of the country, among them Mao Zedong, in Shanghai for the first National Congress, where the Communist Party of China saw the first light of day. Four historical eras underline the leadership of the Communist Party of China when it led the people in the New Democratic Revolution, namely the Northern Campaign (1924 – 1927), the Agrarian-Revolutionary War (1927 – 1937), the Anti –Japanese War (1937 – 1945) and the Liberation War (1945 – 1949). During the anti-Japanese campaign the communist party of China fought collectively with the Kuomintang against the aggressors and captured victory. In 1945 unleashes the Kuomintang a civil war. 1949, after three years of liberation war overturned the Communist Party of China finally the Kuomintang government. The Peoples Republic of China (since 1949) On October 1st in 1949, while 300,000 people gathered on the Tian’anmen Square for a solemn manifestation, Mao Zedong, President of the Central Peoples Republic, declared the foundation of the People Republic of China. In the first years of the existence the P.R. of China the Chinese Government managed the land reform in areas, where 90 % of the land population lived. 117 million acres of farmland had been allocated to 300 Million farmers. The first “Five-Year-Plan” (1953 – 1957) was concluded with an astonishing success. The national income grew by more than 8.9 % p. a. during this time. A series of vital industrial sectors which did not exist in China before, but were crucial for the industrialisation of the country, such like aircraft construction, automotive industry, Heavy- and Precision Mechanical Engineering, Electricity- and Plant Construction, Metallurgy and Construction of Mining Industry Equipment as well as the smelting von high – grade steel and non-ferrous metal industry, had been successfully build up. The time between 1957 and 1966 was marked by a large scale socialistic build up. The fixed assets of the industry grew from 1956 to 1966, prices adjusted threefold, the national income climbed with prices adjusted, by 58 %, the production output of the important industrial products grew tenfold. The basic set up and the technical reconfiguration of the agricultural sector was done in great strides. In the ten years of the “Culture Revolution”, between May 1966 and October 1976 the country suffered yet the most severe losses and set backs since the proclamation of the People’s Republic. In October 1976 the reactionary clique led by Jiang Qing was trashed, what marked the end of the “Culture Revolution”. Now, China could enter a new era of a new development of historic dimensions. Deng Xiaoping, former General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China, was reinstalled in leading positions. After 1979, new guidelines for “Reform and Opening” were introduced under his leadership, with the main focus of this task shifting towards modernisation and build up of the country. By reforming the economical and political structures China took a new own way of socialistic modernisation. Since the beginning of the reform and opening politic, China changed in a profound way. The Economy grew continuously and the living standard of the populace improved noticeably. This is the best period since the proclamation of the People’s Republic. Since 1989, when Jiang Zemin took offices as General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party and since 1993 as Head of State, he guided the leading collective of China’s 3rd generation to continue with the reform and opening politic initiated by Deng Xiaoping consequently, to maintain political stability, economic development and an active diplomacy. This political agenda is fully supported by the people. In November, 2002, during the 1st plenary conference of the XVI. CC of the C.P.Ch., Hu Jintao was elected as General Secretary of the Central Committee of the C.P. of China and in March 2003, during the 1st session of the X. National People’s Congress elected as Head of State. |
Xia Dynasty ( 21th century B.C – 16th century B. C) 
Qin Dynasty (221 B. C – 206 B.C)
beginning of the Western Han Dynasty (206 B.C – 24 A.D). Emperor Wu from the Han dynasty introduced a politic of opening, what triggered a rapid economic improvement. The Han age is credited for one of the great times of prosperity in China. The last emperors were weak, what led to confusion within the imperial family and subsequently to anarchy in the empire. From 25 A.D. on overtook the Eastern Han Dynasty the power under Liu Xiu, a distant relative of the last emperor of the Western Han Dynasty, who’s power based especially upon the support of great land owners. 
Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty (156 B.C – 87 B.C)
Empires, the Wei, Shu and Wu.
Empress Wu Zetian (624 A.D– 705A.D) 
Yuan Dynasty (1271 – 1368)