| |
China is a vast country with the largest population in the world, thus numerous religions evolved in this old nation. There are mainly 5 religions, including
Buddhism, Taoism, Islam, Catholicism and other Christian religions. Confucianism is rather a philosophy than a religion, which influenced politics and culture in China over the last 2000 years. There still other primordial religions, which have believers specifically in ethnical groups. Buddhism spread all over China after the Han Dynasty and played an important role in the Chinese history and culture ever since. Taoism was founded in China during the age of the Han dynasty. The Chinese philosopher Lu Xun once said: “China is deeply rooted in Taoism”. If one wants to conceive Chinese history and culture one has to comprehend Taoism first. Islam has been first introduced to the coastal cities of China during the Tang- dynasty (618 – 907) and sprawled in other successively. Arabian traders, who landed along the Southern coast of China, built their mosques in the big coastal cities like Guangzhou and Quanzhou. Today, Islam is an important religion in China since the religion of Allah has a follower ship of believers in many ethnical groups like the Uygurs, Hui and Kazacs. Beginning with the year 635, during the time of the Tang-dynasty Catholicism was received in great parts of China with ample enthusiasm, but this exaltation ebbed rather soon. Historical records hereunto can be found on a stone stele, which is displayed in Xi’an, now. Later, in the Yuan-dynasty (1271 – 1368) tried this religion a comeback for a short period of time. In the year 1582 the Italian priest Matteo Ricci was granted authorization from the Ming Dynasty (1368 – 1644) to build churches. Catholicism in China developed rapidly after the opium war. Others, besides Catholic or Eastern-European religions (i. e. Presbyterianism, Protestantism) arrived during the Thirties of the last century in China, promoted by many immigrating missionaries during that time.
Buddhism spread first during the time of the Han-dynasty and developed from this time on. Buddhism plays an important role in the Chinese culture and history. Within China, Buddhism can be subdivided into Chinese Buddhism, Tibetan Buddhism and Southern- Buddhism. The Chinese Buddhism and the Tibetan Buddhism are important fractions of this religion, since they obtained many significant Buddhist writings over time, which were translated from the original Sanskrit versions. The Chinese Buddhism The Chinese Buddhism teaches the religion of Buddha as it has been taught during the Han Empire and eventually blended in with the Han-culture. The Buddhism developed formally in China mainly in the sphere of influence of the Han. Based on historical records, Buddhist missionaries ventured to China during the time of the Qin Dynasty. During the age of the Three Kingdoms (220 – 265) many eminent monks and Buddhist scholars were involved in the grand project of translating the Sutra (a scant worded guideline). Most emperors believed in Buddhism during The Dynasties of the North and South. Buddhism grew fast, regardless of the demolition events. During the Northern Wei Dynasty (386 – 534) were the famous Yungang - Grottos and the Longmen – Grottos created. The Buddhist share of the overall population was up to 2 million believers. At the time of the North-Qi-dynasty (550 – 557) were more than 4 million Buddhists assumed. Many famous foreign monks came to China and quite a lot of Chinese monks travelled to India, to study Buddhism and came back home with additional Sutra teachings. After the Sui Dynasty took power, Buddhism enjoyed imperial protection and received the leading religious role. The Sutra translations continued and the Buddhism has had a golden age during the Tang Dynasty. Many temples and convents were rebuilt and the most famous monks from China and abroad were invited to participate with translations of the Sutra teachings. The extraordinary monks of the Tang age achieved unequalled with their studies and research of Buddhism. Then Buddhism started to branch out into different schools, interpretations and teachings which eventually spread all the way to Japan, Korea, Vietnam and Indonesia. The Chinese Buddhism belongs to the Mahayana school, also known and called as the “Great Vehicle”. According to this doctrine it is believed, that Buddha not only shows the way by going back and forth to reach ultimately ones own Nirvana and also assists with spiritual guidance as one searches for Nirvana, but assigns the believer to strict altruism. This form of Buddhism is mainly fractioned into 8 schools: Zen, Tantra, Reinland, Tiantai, Sanlun, Faxiang, Lu and Huayan, among them are Zen and Reinland the most prominent. In Buddhism four “Holy Mountains” have special meanings: Jiuhua, Emei, Putuo and Wutai . The Tibetan Buddhism The Tibetan Buddhism is also called Lamaism. This branch of Buddhism was introduced into Tibet during the governance of Songtsen Gampo in the 7th century. ‘At this time Tibet was united and developed an own writing. To strengthen his regime Songtsen Gampo supported Buddhism and married princesses from Nepal and from the Tang Dynasty (618 – 907) in China, both regions were predominated by Buddhism. In commemoration of their respective homeland cultures, many Sutras and Buddha statues were brought into Tibet for both princesses. During the time of Trisong Detsen Tsampo, who was the grandchild of Songtsen Gampo and Jin Cheng, son of another princess, an Indian master of Buddhism named Padmasambhva, was invited to elaborate on secret Buddhism. The master selected seven talented Tibetans to be his students and inducted them to this religion. Eventually they became the first monks of Tibet. Since then many monasteries and monks evolved from here and great many Sutras were translated into Tibetan language ever since. Regardless of the many exercised attempts to oppress Tibetan Buddhism, this religion could flourish since the 10th century and 10 schools of Buddhism evolved eventually over time. Today those 10 schools are categorized in 5 major teaching directions. Nyingmapa (red hat school) The meaning of Nyingmapa in the Tibetan language is “the old school” and is considered as the religious order with the longest history. Since the followers of this order wear red hats and robes it was called the red hat order (school). In combination with the Tantra teachings (a mysterious Indian teaching) is this the authentic Buddhist religion of the old Tibet. The core of the teaching is referred to as “Dzogchen” - through rectification of the self and by means of meditation can the followers achieve existence beyond death and become ultimately Buddha. Kagyupa (white hat school) The followers of the Kagyupa wore first white hats and white robes. They established many settlements. This particular teaching has the main focus on Dzogchen and theoretical studies as well. The doctrines written in non-conform articles are scorned. They follow the principles and dictation of a secret Buddhism. Gelugpa (yellow hat school) This school was founded in the early 5th century. This school is the most recent and most important among the Tibetan Buddhist schools. Founded by Tsong Khapa, Gelugpa differs compared to other schools with combinations of secret and exoteric Buddhism under the command of virtue. Gelugpa monks wear yellow hats and robes hence the school is called “yellow hat school”. This school has founded and built some impressive monasteries worthwhile to see, like Ganden, Drepung and Sera. Sakyapa (stripes school) Sakyapa has the Tibetan meaning of “white land”. The main monastery Sakya was built on white coloured land on the banks of a river and the outside walls were painted with red, white and black floral motives, which depict Manjusri, Avalokitesvara and Vajrapani Bodhisattva. As a consequence the name Sakyapa “stripes school” was given. The teaching claims, that the believers have to “strip off” all earthly perceptions while meditation will lead the way to ultimate wisdom. Kadampa Reflected in the name the Kadampa demands school tutoring about all notions related to the world of Buddhism. The teachings are mainly about exoteric and esoteric Buddhism. The exoteric emphasizes philosophical instructions which can be taught to everybody. With the rise of the yellow-hat-school in the 15th century the teaching of Kadampa was widely bstituted. Southern Buddhism The term Southern Buddhism refers to the Pali Buddhism which has been introduced from Myanmar to Yunnan during the 7th century. In the beginning were no Buddhist temples and the teachings were only vocal. In the 11th century lost Buddhism some influence due to some wars. After the wars Buddhism was reintroduced from different groups like the Dai from Thailand and Myanmar. The Sutra Patra, written in the language of the Dai, was published, after the language was complemented with letters and a script in 1277. In the year 1569, when a princess from Myanmar was married to the 19th local appointee of Yunnan, the king of Myanmar sent Yunnan a Buddhist mission accompanied by Buddhist writings and statues. Soon after the temple was rebuilt, the Dai as well as some other ethnical groups would join the Pali-Buddhism. Today 4 schools of Southern Buddhism can be differentiated. The boys of the Dai have to live likes monks after they reach the school age. They are educated in the monasteries and are only allowed to leave by the time they are adults. Special gifted boys are allowed to continue their studies and live in the monasteries as real monks. The Southern Buddhists cultivate a hierarchical system of different ranks. On the top stands a religious leader.
The Confucianism was introduced, taught and established by Confucius himself during the Spring and Autumn Period (770 B. C – 476 B. C) and was developed further by Menius. That’s why this teaching is also called the school of Confucius and Menius. During the Han Dynasty evolved Confucianism to the status of being acknowledged as “state religion”. All other religions were oppressed by the Han, ment to stabilize their own power. At this time Confucianism flourished and dominated the Chinese history and culture for a time span of 2.000 years. Later the teachings spread even to Korea and Japan and influenced those two cultures very strongly. Confucius and Confucianism had enormous impact on the Chinese civilisation. Today, it is impossible to imagine Chinese culture and history without the influences of his philosophy. Within this 2,000 years Confucianism shaped the mindset of Chinese towards all aspects in life. Confucianism constituted behaviour patterns and social standards, established the standard system for the education of governmental officials and has been the back bone and philosophical background for Chinese political theories and institutions. Who Is Confucius? Confucius (551 B. C– 479 B. C) the founder of Confucianism, was born in today’s city of Qufu in the province of Shandong. He was called Kong Qiu and or with his sobriquet Zhongni and adored by the Chinese as Kong Fuzi or Kong Zi. He was a brilliant thinker and a didactic in the era of The Spring and Autumn Period. He was a descendent of a poor family, managed it nonetheless to obtain a good education. At the age of 50 he supposedly was promoted to be prime minister of the Lu Empire. However, his political enemies conspired and forced him out of office eventually and consequently dismissed him at the age of 55. Now he began to lead his students through the warring states to spread his philosophy and consulted how to solve problems, which triggered personal problems quite often. In his later years he was very much engaged in education and legend has it, that he obviously taught more then 3,000 students. 72 of them became famous as well. He died 479 B. C. In the context of his political views insisted Confucius on strict social stratifications since he considered this most beneficial for common welfare. He struggled always for ethical reforms and stood up against all kinds of tyranny. The major ethical feature he promoted was charity, in Chinese “Ren”. On the pedagogical level he valued the development of singular abilities or talents and enforced the combination of learning and autonomous thinking. He once said: “Learning without thinking leads to confusion, thinking without learning to uselessness”. Confucianism is no religion but partly system of the philosophy and humanism, even though some religious elements are evident. Confucius and Menius never intended to found a religion even though their teachings are often interpreted as such. Confucius lived in a time of social and ethical chaos where elementary values had been denied or simply been disregarded. In this time of suspense and fear, triggered by many wars, flourished Confucianism and changed finally the values of Chinese society and dominated China for centuries to come. When Confucius saw the stark differences between the disaccords and the lack of harmony in this chaotic society compared to the harmony and strict order of nature, his philosophy tried to bring an end to human primitivism and to reinstall useful new standards for society. In the Qin Dynasty (221 B. C – 206 B. C), Emperor Qin Shi Huang ordered the killing of Confucian intellectuals and burned Confucian literatures, to implement his chaotic ideology and thoughts easier as well as to strictly enforce the observance of his orders. Under the rule of Emperor Wu (140 B. C – 87 B. C), Confucianism was politically conform and hence adopted as the state ideology of the Han Dynasty, since Confucianism views the imperial empire as god given. All other ideologies were banned, so exclusive interpretations could regulate all aspects of social strata and social mandate on the grounds of Confucian values. From this time on no other ideology was able to prevail. One reason why Confucianism could become so dominant was the fact, that the intrinsic theory of Confucianism are considered political correct and hence feeds into the needs of a strict, separated multi class system. He separated the world in a social elite who gave orders and the tributaries who received orders and laws which had to be strictly obeyed. Confucianism implies, that the ruler (emperor) is de facto the father of his tributaries who has to take care of their basic needs in a way a food father would. He demands loyalty from governmental officials and resents corruption strictly. Yet, he approves and endorses the absolute power of the ruler over his tributaries, of a husband over his wife, and the father over his son and emphasizes the five constant virtues charity (ren), brotherhood (yi), decency (Li), intelligence (zhi) and loyalty (xin) as an ethical fundament. Confucianism was andro-centristic, women had no own dignity and no human rights that is. According to Confucianism a woman owed primarily her father absolute obedience, after marriage to her husband, being a widow to her son(s). Ethics, moral, correct talking, humble character and accurate work were fundamental virtues required from a woman. Cases where a woman has been infertile, impious, gossipy, jealous, severe sick, adultery or being a thief, man were allowed to divorce her. Even though Confucius is being condemned for some of his views, his teachings has influenced the Chinese and their lives until today. Taoism “The Tao which can be spoken is not the eternal Tao. The name which can be called is not the eternal name”. From the nameless is the beginning and matter. Named is the mother of the countless causes. Tao Te Jing, by Laotzi Originally was Taoism a philosophical school of the “Dozen-schools” and has not been regarded as a religion in the Spring and Autumn Period. As some of the most recognized and excellent thinkers and philosophers of Taoism are Laozi, in foreign languages often referred to as Laotzu or Laotse and Zhuang Zi, often named Chuang Tzu. They have been of great importance for the development of the philosophy of Taoism and seemed to have no intention at all to establish Taoism as a religion. Laotzu became Li Er or Lao Dan. Legend tells us, that he was surprisingly intelligent to such a degree, that even Confucius visited him. Later developed Chuangtsu the Taoist theory even further and allowed to label another Taoist canon with his own name Chuangtsu, (the book of Chuang Tsu). Before the Han Dynasty Taoism was no religion at all. It evolved as a religion sometime in the later Eastern Han Dynasty and branched out shortly thereafter in different schools. Then Buddhism pushed Taoism into a state of shadowy existence. In the Tang-, Song-, Yuan- and Ming Dynasties flourished Taoism, since this teaching supported and endorsed the political idea of imperialism. In the Middle Qing Dynasty Taoism had lost already the imperial patronization and was only of little relevance. Nonetheless, Taoism has still quite many followers in China, today. What Is Taoism? Taoism is hard to understand, but comprises much truths and wisdom, nonetheless. The heart of Taoism is the concept of Tao, which defines the natural tasks of things which cannot be specified because they exceed imaginations, thoughts and fantasies. To comprehend this concept, countless meditations and philosophical evaluations are required, since perception can only be achieved by mystical intuition. The meaning of Tao is: “the way” or “the manner”. Tao is the natural way of the universe, the driving force behind nature, the meaning and mission of all life and the propulsion of all living objects. Taoists believe, that Tao represents, hence “is”, the beginning of the universe and also creates all living species, as all of them shall worship any life form in the universe and that all forms of life which are created by nature, shall worship nature. Taoism promotes the cooperation with nature and natural elements, instead of working against these forces. The Taoist lives according to the Wu Wei (no interference) and tries to convince others not to fight against the control nature but rather adapt to the laws of nature. The Taoists assess, that nature is in a permanent state of transformation and rearrangement yet remains stabile and harmonic at the same time. Taoism teaches among others the immortality of the physical human being. The Taoists are engaged in alchemy, since long time ago to research, find and produce the elixirs of immortality. There have been two schools of the alchemists. The extrinsic alchemists believed in herbal medicine and pharmacology. The intrinsic alchemists believed in alchemy within the body with energy, Qi and spirit (mind). Consequently Chinese medical science and Taoism complement each another. The dialectical Taoism claims, that the movement of Tao is a continuous interdependency between opposite poles. The Taoists consider Yin and Yang as negative and positive basic rules of the universe. The one can not exist without the other and portrait converse poles to define their respective correlations, quite often. The Taoist symbol characterizes the relevance of Taoism. Yin signifies negative, woman, darkness, sin and earth, and Yang as positive, man, light, everything good and heaven. There are strong similarities between the theories of Yin and Yang and the Wushu, the Chinese teachings of witchcraft. Taoism prays predominantly Wu Wei (non-interference). This concept does not mean “to do nothing at all”, how one could probably interpret in the literal sense, but stands rather for the view to follow the river of nature and to leave anything in natural, original states and not to act against nature. This concept reflects the Taoist philosophical position towards every aspect of life. The Taoism endorses Wuyu (non-intentional) as well, which stands for the fundamental idea: not much can be asked for in life. Simplicity, compassion, friendliness and humbleness are classic Taoist virtues. System of the Taoist Deities Like in many other religions in the world the Taoist Pantheon has a strict hierarchy. The paramount Taoist gods are the trinity: San Qing (three pure gods). The three gods are each respected as Yu Qing (Purity of Jade), Shang Qing (higher purity) and Tai Qing (Grand purity). Among those three gods Tai Qing (grand purity) supposedly gained immortality, is divine and superior in his rank to the others. On the level of the Trinity of Gods are also four heavenly emperors, which are adored as Yu Huang (Jade Emperor). One of them governs the other gods, while being assisted by the remaining three. Additionally 4 kings exist for the single purpose to protect the East, the West, the South and the North. Among them was the northern King Zhenwu (Genuine Prowess) called Zhenwudadi, and received more reverences than all other higher gods, since he was, so legend has it, the 82nd incarnation of Tai Shang Lao Jun (another title for Laotzu, already considered a deity). Present are also other heavenly spirits, like the famous Ba Xian (Eight Immortals) and San Guan (The Three Officials). It is a complicated and for non-Taoists very puzzling system. The famed Taoist holy mountains are the Huashan (in the West), the Hengshan (in the South), the Hengshan, (in the North), the Songshan (in the centre) and the Taishan (in the East). |
Buddhism in China 
Confucianism 